Religious Art and Architecture: From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance
Before the middle ages, art, architecture, philosophy, and education flourished in classical antiquity.[1] However, this period beginning around the 8th century AD was short-lived, as it collapsed together with the roman empire around 500CE.[2] The middle ages began thereafter and lasted until the 14th century. The middle ages were characterized by very little art, philosophy, and architecture, and has been called the dark ages by some historians.[3] However, it is during this period that saw the rise of Christianity and most specifically the Catholic church.[4] After the collapse of Rome, the Roman empire was ruled by the church for the rest of the middle ages until the 14th century, when religious authority waned giving rise to the humanists and the Renaissance.[5] For this reason, the middle ages were characterized by art and architecture that was deeply influenced by religion. The period is characterized by the construction of large churches and cathedrals, reflecting the supremacy of the church during that period. After the 14th century, the rise of the humanists led to the rebirth of classical antiquity, which was the Renaissance way of reintroducing non-religious art and architecture that previously characterized the Greco-Roman world.[6] The period was a re-imagining, or what some historians have called the rebirth of classical antiquity. The period which lasted between the 14th century and the 17th was rich in art, architecture, science, philosophy, and study of the classics.[7] This essay will, therefore, explore the progression of art and architecture away from the theology of the middle ages back to the art and architecture of classical antiquity as depicted in the Renaissance.
The Middle Ages
The middle ages began around 500 CE after the fall of the Roman Empire and extended throughout the 12th and 13th centuries.[8] The period has been divided into three different epochs, all of which portray the growth and progression of art. The three periods include the early middle ages, the Romanesque, and the Gothic. The Romanesque and the Gothic periods both reflect eras of great architecture and art, unlike the early middle ages commonly referred to as the dark ages. After the fall of the Roman empire, there was constant warfare in Europe and people were always on the move. The warfare and the movement meant that people had little time for cultural vocations or art.[9] Art could be heavy, therefore, most of the people in the early middle ages created and bought very little of it. Historians most often refer to this period as the dark ages of barbarity, ignorance, and decline.[10] However, as most of them have recognized, the period was not short of its architectural wonders, since, in their movement, people in the middle ages moved down to the south and interacted with many cultures and people of the middle east. Art in the early middle ages was, therefore, greatly influenced by middle eastern and southern art.[11] The early middle ages or the dark ages ended around 1000 CE, ushering a new era of Romanesque architecture and art, which was mostly influenced by the church and theology of the time.
Religion, Art and Architecture in the Middle Ages
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Church started gaining massive influence throughout Europe. Without a central government, Christianity managed to unite various cultures like the Celts, Saxons, Norse, and the Germanic Franks to the Roman culture.[12] Christianity, therefore, created new political and social reforms. The church also laid the foundations for feudalism, where rich landowners and nobles wielded immense power with the support of the church.[13] The relationship was one of mutual benefit, with the church validating noble power, and the nobles collecting taxes from poor peasants on behalf of the church. Peasants worked on farmlands and plantations owned by the nobles in return for homes to live and protect. They paid 10 percent taxes to be collected by the church. Art and architecture during this period were mostly controlled by the church, with the church exerting influence on the type of art to be done, and the architecture of its buildings. In this period, therefore, most works of art and architecture were centered on liturgical equipment such as crucifixes, candlesticks, and alters. Church buildings and sacred texts were also painted and built following religious themes.
It was not until 800 CE, three hundred years after the fall of the roman empire, did Pope Leo III of Rome appoint a new emperor for the Roman Empire. The new emperor was a Frankish German called Carolus Magnus in Latin, or Charlemagne.[14] It is Charlemagne who revived art and architecture in the Roman Empire. Charlemagne ordered the construction of his Palace chapel, the largest stone structure after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Aachen, Germany.[15] In comparison, Charlemagne’s palace in Germany, resembled the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, with both bearing an octagonal plan within an octagonal plan. The San Vitale church had been built by the emperor of the Roman Empire, Justinian, before the collapse of the empire.[16] Charlemagne liked both emperor Justinian and Constantine, both of whom influenced his leadership. These palaces paved the way for new eras of art and architecture that introduced ingenious ways of building cathedrals. Charlemagne paved the way for the Romanesque and Gothic eras of the middle ages, new eras of vibrant art and architecture that finally paved the way for the Renaissance.
The Romanesque Architecture and Art
The Romanesque architecture took hold between 1000 CE and 1300 CE before paving way for the Gothic architecture. The Romanesque architecture was still greatly influenced by religion and most of them comprised of cathedrals and monasteries.[17] Romanesque architecture comprised of large cathedrals with thick stone walls. They had arcades and facades, with openings made of semicircular arches. Romanesque architecture is also distinct for having very few tiny windows. Roofs were supported by round arches and vaults.[18] The design was also comprised of large towers, with the two-towered cathedrals progressing from the one towered design incorporated in the Palatine Chapel. Most cathedrals were symmetrical in shape evoking a simple look of firmness and immovability. Throughout the period, Romanesque cathedrals were built throughout Europe both harboring different architectural designs in detail and nuance, but all maintaining the general Romanesque designs that characterized the period. The most notable Romanesque piece of architecture is the Leaning Tower of Pisa.[19] Other notable buildings and cathedrals include Saint-Lazare of Autun, Sant Tomas de Fluvia, Durham Cathedral, Thetford, St. Albans Cathedral, Trier Cathedral, Church of Saint-Front, and Saint Hadelin.[20] The last era of middle age architecture was a progression from Romanesque architecture, to a more complex form of art and architecture called the Gothic.
Gothic Art and Architecture in the Middle Ages
Gothic architecture was influenced by the religious fanaticism of the era. Compared to the Romanesque, the Gothic was more complex in architectural design and ingenuity.[21] One of the most notable features of Gothic architecture was the pointed arches in its design.[22] The Romanesque had round and semi-circular arches which were characteristic of their low standing nature. The pointed arches of Gothic design allowed for the structures to be elevated higher than Romanesque cathedrals.[23] The gothic design also has ribbed vaults that made possible the incorporation of more windows and taller height.[24] To support the weight of the tall cathedrals, the Gothic design consisted of flying buttresses that protruded from the sides passing the weight to the ground.[25] The cathedrals also had thinner walls, unlike the Romanesque thick walls. Gothic cathedrals had tall towers, which made them the tallest structures in the cities and towns they were located in. Historians have suggested that the tall structure symbolized aspirations towards heaven.[26] The same was true of the large colored windows, which gave worshipers the illusions of heaven. Gothic plans resembled the sign of the crucifix with their openings and facades facing East. More art was incorporated in the buildings with sculpted grotesques and labyrinths.[27] Gothic art was a great symbol of the middle ages with large cathedrals all over Europe. The most notable piece of Gothic architecture is the Notre-Dame de Paris in France. Others include Ely Cathedral, Henry VII Lady Chapel, Amiens Cathedral, Wells Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, and the Canterbury Cathedral.[28] Gothic Architecture climaxed the middle ages, paving the way to a more vibrant and sophisticated period of art and architecture; the Renaissance.
The Renaissance
The Renaissance is largely depicted as a period of rebirth, culminating in the rediscovery of previous cultures of classical antiquity. The Renaissance overlapped with the middle ages, with many historians claiming it started around the 14th Century in Italy. The word Renaissance means rebirth; a metaphor depicting the reintroduction of complex culture in Europe, after a one-thousand-year hiatus since the fall of the Roman Empire in 500 CE. The Renaissance grew out of classical antiquity, with slight imitations of their works and literature. However, with time, the Renaissance artists became more creative and established their masterpieces. The period between the 14th and 17th Centuries also saw a new turn away from religious fanaticism, into an all-encompassing culture of free inquiry and art.
The fate of Religious Art During the Renaissance
Religion played a huge role during the middle ages, with the catholic church taking center stage to control all forms of architecture. During that period, art and architecture were mostly used in cathedrals and liturgical equipment. However, the Renaissance was marked as an era of religious reform, and the rise of Protestantism.[29] Martin Luther was a huge critic of the Catholic Church; he preached against Catholic Church idolatry as depicted in the visual paintings of biblical figures in the windows of Cathedrals.[30] The rise of Protestantism was also accompanied by Iconoclasm, which sort to strip the catholic church’s cathedrals of all visual representations of heavenly figures.[31] Iconoclasm led to the destruction of artworks, cathedrals, sculptures, and paintings of the previous era.[32] Luther’s defense was that the world of sight was materialistic, and any visual representations of saints were wrong. Instead, he believed in the world of hearing, where the word of God was listened to, as elaborated by the scriptures.[33] The protestant reformation is one of the significant movements of the renaissance that also lead to the rejection of the feudal system that was perpetrated by the Catholic church in the middle ages. What followed was the rise of Humanism, a critical movement that paved way to the art and architecture of the Renaissance.
Humanism and Sages of the Renaissance
The humanists were more focused on establishing the lessons of classical antiquity into the Renaissance.[34] Even though they shunned Religious centralization, most humanists did not violently oppose it like the iconoclasts, instead, the humanists championed for free inquiry and study. The humanists were therefore teachers and students of the humanities; teaching and studying grammar, philosophy, rhetoric, history, poetry, and the classics.[35] Science grew out of these movements, with Nikolai Copernicus establishing the heliocentric model of the solar system. Galileo also invented the Telescope and was able to study and describe the rings of Saturn. The printing press was invented in the Renaissance by Gutenberg, which made the spread of ideas easier. The invention of the printing press also made the progression of art into paper, unlike before, where it was only comprised of sculptures. Renaissance painters and architectures were greatly influenced by Science, Mathematics, and Geometry, which can be seen in their works. Some of these sages of art include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Sandro Botticelli. Art in the Renaissance is comprised of paintings, stone carvings, sculptures, and frescoes; a variety made enigmatic by careful attention to detail, the study of human nature, and Science.
Renaissance Paintings and Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci is probably the most notable figure of the Renaissance. He was not only a painter but also an engineer and an anatomist. His earliest paintings include the Baptism, the Annunciation, and the Adoration of the Magi, which he left uncompleted and went to work in Milan.[36] The Adoration of the Magi is rich in context, with the three magi on first sight looking as if they are leaning out of a cave. However, a clear look establishes the clear diversity of the painting, with the characters seemingly living an ordinary life with horses in the background.[37] Leonardo uses the same composition of the Adoration of the Magi to paint the Virgin of the rocks. A composite picture with a cave highlighting the background.[38] The Last Supper was also painted during this period, with great controversy ensuing as to the symbolism of the painting. The people in the painting, notably the 12 disciples and Jesus, are grouped in threes with Jesus in the middle.[39] In his later years, Leonardo painted the Virgin of Saint Anne, the Cavalry Battle, and a portrait of a young citizen, most commonly known as Monalisa.[40] The Monalisa is by far the most famous painting due to its enigmatic feel, a smiling woman with resting arms.
Michelangelo’s Stone Carvings and the Sistine Chapel
Michelangelo is also another notable figure of the renaissance whose works at the beginning of his life mostly centered on stone carving and building statues. His first work was called Bacchus, a carving of a nude male, followed by Pieta, and the famous Statue of David, which was curved after he returned to Florence.[41] Michelangelo has been described as a man of many beginnings due to his habit of taking on more projects than he could finish. Michelangelo was later put in charge of the Sistine Chapel, which he disliked because he never liked painting and that the Sistine walls were not spacious enough.[42] However, he took the idea on and decided to paint the narrative scenes of Genesis; the floor on the ground had already been painted of Moses and Christ. He did three paintings of God creating the World, three paintings of Adam and Eve, and three paintings of Noah.[43] On the sides of the chapel, he added seven prophets and five sibyls.[44] The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is one of the most exemplary pieces of art in the whole of the Renaissance. Michelangelo’s narratives have been copied in chapels and churches throughout the world.
Renaissance Architecture
Unlike the middle ages, architecture in the Renaissance adopted more geometric shapes with close attention to symmetry and pattern. The renaissance also ushered in an era where architecture was done on more ordinary buildings unlike the churches and the cathedrals of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. The tall towers of the gothic architectural designs were replaced with domes. The walls were made of bricks and the arches curved in a semicircular manner.[45] Just like the Sistine Chapel, the ceilings of Renaissance buildings were painted and decorated.[46] One of the most notable architectures of the Renaissance was Donato Bramante. He drew the plans for notable buildings in Italy including, St. Peters in the Vatican, St. Maria Presso, and St. Pietro in Monteiro.[47] The Renaissance culminated in one of the most artistic epochs in the world. The study of the art, literature, and Science of the Renaissance helped usher in the Enlightenment of the 17th Century.
Conclusion
The middle ages commonly referred to the dark ages was sandwiched between two of the most important periods in modern civilization; the classical antiquity and the Renaissance. The progression of art and architecture away from theological connotations of religion can be seen from the art and architecture of the Renaissance. The middle ages lucked the variety seen in Renaissance painting, art, and architecture due to the patronage and control of the arts by the Catholic church. Following Charlemagne’s appointment as the Emperor of the Roman Empire, art and architecture were introduced in Germany, as Charlemagne ordered the construction of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen. What followed was a new era of grand cathedrals built using the Romanesque architectural designs of thick walls and few windows. The Romanesque was followed by the Gothic architectural design comprised of tall towers, flying buttresses, and pointed arches. The Gothic designs appeared at the tail end of the middle ages, paving way for the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a new era of rebirth, whereby, the humanists’ sort to re-establish the diversity of art and cultures of classical antiquity. The protestant reformation also led to a shift away from religious fanaticism, and a further weakening of the Catholic Church. Renaissance Art and Architecture was mostly comprised of paintings, stone carvings, and frescoes. Notable figures like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Donato Bromate influenced greatly Renaissance art and architecture until its decline in the 17th Century.
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Jerome Moran, “The R/renaissance(s), humanities and classics.” The Journal of Classics Teaching 19 (38) p.96
[1] Jerome Moran, “The R/renaissance(s), humanities and classics.” The Journal of Classics Teaching 19 (38) p.96
[2] Barbara Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages. Fourth Edition. (University of Toronto Press incorporated. 2014), 21.
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